Fewer birds belonged to species of the order (19%), of which 86% were gulls, 12% waders and 2% other species. coincided with the prevalence peak in wild ducks, whereas virus detections in other poultry types were made throughout the year. Genetic analysis of the surface genes demonstrated that most poultry viruses were related to locally circulating wild bird viruses, but no direct spatiotemporal link was observed. Results indicate prolonged undetected virus circulation and frequent reassortment events with local and newly launched viruses within the crazy bird population. Improved knowledge on LPAI disease circulation can be used to improve monitoring strategies. (ducks, geese and swans) and (gulls and waders) are the natural reservoirs of AI viruses1. The prevalence of AI viruses in crazy parrots varies by varieties, age, time of year and geographical location1. During crazy bird migration, AI viruses Rabbit polyclonal to UGCGL2 can be carried over large geographical distances, enabling disease transmission to vulnerable host populations across the globe2. AI viruses can be transmitted from crazy birds to poultry when breeding, stopover and wintering areas overlap with areas of commercial poultry production. AI viruses are classified into subtypes based on the antigenic constructions present on the surface of the virus3. Currently, 16 hemagglutinin (HA) and 9 neuraminidase (NA) antigenic subtypes have been identified in parrots, which can be found in numerous mixtures2,4. Most AI viruses are low Cyclazodone pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses that remain subclinical or cause mild illness of the intestinal or respiratory tract5. LPAI viruses of subtypes H5 and H7 can evolve into highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) disease variants that are associated with multi-organ systemic illness, which can cause severe disease and high mortality in parrots5. Outbreaks of AI disease infections can have serious effects for animal health and may result in major economic deficits for the poultry industry. In addition, human being instances of AI disease infections have been reported upon direct or indirect exposure to infected poultry6. The quick and unpredictable development of AI viruses leads to the emergence of fresh influenza disease strains and subtype mixtures7C9. Alterations in the genetic material of a virus can lead to changes in the disease characteristics, such as improved virulence or expanded host range, and may give rise to virus variants that are more prone Cyclazodone to infect poultry. The recurrence of AI outbreaks in poultry highlights the importance of global monitoring attempts for early detection and quick response. In the Netherlands, the blood circulation of AI viruses in crazy parrots and poultry has been monitored for more than a decade10,11. The collection of crazy bird swab specimens enables virological detection of AI viruses within the crazy bird population. AI disease detection and monitoring in commercial poultry includes both active and passive monitoring methods. Active monitoring is performed by serological screening for AI viruses. The sampling rate of recurrence depends on poultry type, housing system and estimated risk for disease intro11,12. Farms holding indoor layer chickens, broiler chickens or ducks are tested once a year for the presence of influenza virus-specific antibodies, while outdoor coating poultry and turkey farms are tested four instances a yr and each production cycle, respectively. Passive monitoring consists of virological screening of poultry upon notification of AI suspicions based on medical signs or to confirm positive serology. AI disease monitoring in poultry focuses primarily on the early detection of viruses of subtypes H5 and H7, because Cyclazodone of their potential to become highly pathogenic. However, samples collected in these programs are also used to monitor introductions of LPAI viruses of additional subtypes. Although a Cyclazodone detailed relationship between AI viruses originating from crazy parrots and poultry has been explained13C16, crazy bird varieties that act as sources of illness for poultry and the actual virus transmission route has not yet been identified. In this study, monitoring data collected in the Netherlands between 2006 and 2016 was Cyclazodone analysed to obtain more insight in the blood circulation of LPAI viruses in crazy birds and poultry. We analysed the subtype diversity among LPAI viruses from crazy birds and poultry to identify potential hosts for viruses that infect poultry. In addition, spatiotemporal patterns of LPAI disease detections in crazy birds and poultry were inferred to identify potential geographical locations or periods inside a calendar year associated with illness of poultry. Finally, the genetic relationship between LPAI viruses isolated.