Studying of core elements that are responsible for activities will also help reduce the size of peptides to produce and thereby improve the cost-effectiveness. Conclusion Marsupials have developed multiple strategies to protect immunologically naive small in the non-sterile environment of the pouch (summarized in Physique ?Physique33). the decreased density of certain bacteria in the pouch. A range of antimicrobial brokers, such as immunoglobulins, Proglumide sodium salt lysozyme, transferrin, and cathelicidins, have been recognized in marsupial milk. Antimicrobial assays have revealed that marsupial cathelicidins have broad-spectrum activity against a variety of bacteria and fungi, including several multi-drug resistant strains. In this article, we will review the action mechanisms of these antimicrobial compounds and discuss how they protect marsupial newborns from potentially pathogenic bacteria inside the pouch. We will also discuss the potential of marsupial antimicrobial compounds as a source Proglumide sodium salt of novel antibiotics. Keywords: marsupials, pouch microbiota, pouch young, marsupial milk, antimicrobial peptide, cathelicidin Introduction Marsupials last shared a common ancestor with eutherians around 148 million years ago (Bininda-Emonds et al., 2007) and represent a unique lineage of mammals with unique morphological and reproductive characteristics. You will find over 300 extant marsupial species distributed in the Americas and Australasian regions, constituting about 7% of the worlds living mammals (Dickman, 2005). As one of the most diverse mammalian taxa, marsupials exhibit enormous variations in the body size, reproductive strategy, and other life history characteristics. The adult body mass ranges from less than 5 g in planigales (genus representing one of the most common users of the pouch bacterial community at all reproductive stages. Chhour et al. (2010) characterized the pouch flora of tammar wallabies by cloning bacterial 16S rRNA genes and sequencing isolates with unique restriction enzyme digestion patterns. A total of 41 phylotypes were recognized in 227 clones from three pouch samples, among which Actinobacteria were detected as the predominant bacterial phylum accounting for 82.9% of total diversity. Several bacterial species that have been implicated in human or animal diseases were observed and the most notable was spp. (such as and (Bobek and Deane, 2001). Similarly, pouch secretions of the tammar wallaby showed antimicrobial activity against sp., which have been suggested to play key functions in maintaining JAG2 healthy microbiota in the human vagina (examined in Eloe-Fadrosh and Rasko, 2013). Interestingly, the six tested Tasmanian devil cathelicidin peptides all showed low to no activity against strains (except for vancomycin-resistance for antimicrobial potential, including six Tasmanian devil peptides, eight tammar wallaby peptides, and one predicted ancestral peptide reconstructed from tammar wallaby cathelicidin sequences (Wang et al., 2011; Wanyonyi et al., 2011; Peel et al., 2016). Five of these peptides showed broad-spectrum bactericidal and fungicidal activity, while one (Saha-CATH3) was specifically potent against fungal strains (Table ?Table11). Two peptides, WAM1 and Saha-CATH5, also effectively killed antibiotic-resistant strains, such as (MRSA), and vancomycin-resistance (VREF). Hemolytic assays exhibited that all examined marsupial peptides are not toxic to human red blood cells except at extremely high peptide concentration (e.g., >250 g/ml) (Wang et al., 2011; Peel et al., 2016). Salt sensitivity test of WAM1 showed that, unlike most other cathelicidins which drop activity under high salt conditions, WAM1 is usually resistant to inhibition by high salt concentrations (150C200 mM NaCl) (Wang et al., 2011). Table 1 Antimicrobial activity of six marsupial cathelicidin peptides. isolates0.47-30.4isolates0.95-15.2isolates0.95-7.59 Open in a separate window aOnly MIC values lower than 20 M are shown. bData from Wang et al. (2011). cData from Peel et al. (2016). Proglumide sodium salt These studies are the first steps to fully revealing the potential of marsupial cathelicidins as candidates for novel antibiotic development. Further work is required to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of the peptides and to understand Proglumide sodium salt the mechanisms of their Proglumide sodium salt functions. Moreover, the issue of high cost of peptide production needs to be resolved. Recent and current studies of marsupial cathelicidins largely rely.